The relationship between unequal democracy and uneasy alliances Essay

The relationship between unequal democracy and uneasy alliances - Essay Example Scholars argue that politicians respond to the needs of all voters because of their desire to win elections. Paul contradicts this view by expounding on the economic gap that politicians create among Americans based on racial and political affiliation. He further explains that American politicians spend a great deal of resources and time on the majority who are white voters, at the expense of the minority black voters. The theory intimates that the two-party system in United States is responsible for the current state of affairs. Frymer argues that the establishment of the current party system distances the American minorities’ concerns from political agendas (Frymer 26). The system continues to limit opportunities for black Americans politically. Several American presidents facilitate this political isolation by distancing themselves from the needs of the African Americans. In addition, the Republican Party, which dominates most of the white populace, concentrates on the need s of the white voters. Frymer compares the black voters’ position in the American politics with that of minority social groups such as lesbians, gays and Christian right. According to Frymer, uneasy alliances are powerful challenges on how Americans view the relationship between democracy, black voters and political parties. The theory compares the impact of various political parties on the livelihoods of the black voters. It reveals that the Democratic Party establishes a close relationship with the African-American voters while the Republican Party relates well with the white voters.

A View from a Bridge by Arthur Miller Essay Example for Free

A View from a Bridge by Arthur Miller Essay There are several factors which lead to Eddies eventual decline. The main ones were things like the influence of the society, influence of the people around him and ultimately himself highlighting his unwillingness to negotiate and his excessively close relationship with Catherine. Nearly all the characters in the story were responsible for Eddies eventual downfall. In page 39, Catherine says: You wanna dance Rodolfo? At this point Eddie freezes in obvious disapproval. Rodolfo senses that Eddie is unhappy about her dancing with him so Rodolfo replies: No, I-Im tired in defense to Eddie. Beatrice makes things worse by saying: Go ahead, dance, Rodolfo. Eddie particularly didnt like the fact the Catherine had put on high heels in the house, just to make a good impression on a young man (Rodolfo) before the dancing incident. Eddie says: Whats the high heels for Garbo? Alfieri is also to blame for the death of Eddie. In page 58-59, Alfieri and Marco have a lengthy conversation. Alfieri tries to get Marco to promise that he wouldnt take matters in his own hands but Alfieri didnt succeed. Alfieri says: Im waiting, Marco, what do you say? then further onwards Rodolfo says: Marco, tell the man Marco replies: He knows such a promise is dishonorable Marco clearly has pride for himself which he feels that he could lose. Alfieri then promises that Marco will not harm Eddie on behalf of him but this promise was outwardly unsecure. Eddies attempt to always be the man of the house was a factor leading to his breakdown. Eddies Sicilian background inter links with his 1950s notions of manhood because it meant that he had to be very manly and be the one who goes off to work. Eddie shows his manliness when he starts to be competitive with Marco and Rodolfo for instance when he starts to teach him Boxing. Eddie says: well come on , Ill teach you and then when Marco showed Eddie that he could pick up a chair with one hand, Eddie looked grumpy because he couldnt do it, he felt like he was beaten. Many people look up to Eddie and he knows it which is a cause to his downfall. In page 25 Louis says: Believe me, Eddie; you got a lotta credit comin to you. Eddies neighborhood motivates him a lot because he is so concerned about his respect in the neighborhood he forgets about what he is doing to the people close to him. This is shown when at the final scene he kept on demanding respect. Eddie says: wipin the neighborhood with my name like dirty rag ; I want my name back Marco , now gimme my name and we go together to the wedding. As a result of this Eddie died.

Internet Pro Or Con :: essays research papers

Worldwide Disaster: Right at Your Fingertips   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Internet junkies and world leaders alike are dealing with a phenomenon they do not fully understand; the internet, a vast, ungovernable, intimate, alter-reality, through which, almost anything is possible. Although many acclaim the internet as a harbinger to a new age and extol its virtues as an information source, the internet brings challenges few are ready to face. The versatility of the internet brings these troubles into many realms of our everyday life. This paper will discuss how the internet hurts commerce, international relations, and interpersonal relationships.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The commercial industries have latched onto the internet as if it were free money. Many, though have been caught unaware. Commerce suffers greatly from information leaks and infringement. One of the largest losses come from the loss of trade secrets. Joseph Kizza, an expert researcher in the field of internet influence, states the problem succinctly:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Two types of information can leak on the internet: (1) information on devices,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  designs, processes, software designs, and many other industrial processes, and (2)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  information on individual employees’ life possessions-- employee- accumulated   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  knowledge and experience...When an employee is hired by a company he/she   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  usually signs a contract with a new employer against disclosure of information   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"acquired in the course of employment.† But by the nature of the internet an   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  employee can live by this contract and yet disclose as much information, most   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  times unknowingly, into the internet community. (147) Such information leaks can do great damage to individual companies in a competitive environment. Years of research and millions of dollars can be leaked out unwittingly. Infringement uses these trade secrets for gain. An infringer is anyone who uses proprietary information to profit undeservedly. But, unlike other lawbreakers no public law enforcement can be used to investigate an infringer (Kizza 78). The owner of patents or copyrights must pay any expenses incurred for investigating and prosecuting. Considering the inability to trace internet access in such a case few infringements are ever caught. This can be devastating to commerce (Kizza 78).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Concerning international relations the internet has already done much damage. The British Broadcasting Company, ran a program in 1995 explaining how before any real bombing began in the Gulf War, the US government used internet warfare to drop the â€Å"I- Bomb† on Saddam Hussein’s information systems (Bourdieu 57). The program intimated that the damage done in such warfare is more devastating than the physical damage done by the bombing. Internet Pro Or Con :: essays research papers Worldwide Disaster: Right at Your Fingertips   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Internet junkies and world leaders alike are dealing with a phenomenon they do not fully understand; the internet, a vast, ungovernable, intimate, alter-reality, through which, almost anything is possible. Although many acclaim the internet as a harbinger to a new age and extol its virtues as an information source, the internet brings challenges few are ready to face. The versatility of the internet brings these troubles into many realms of our everyday life. This paper will discuss how the internet hurts commerce, international relations, and interpersonal relationships.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The commercial industries have latched onto the internet as if it were free money. Many, though have been caught unaware. Commerce suffers greatly from information leaks and infringement. One of the largest losses come from the loss of trade secrets. Joseph Kizza, an expert researcher in the field of internet influence, states the problem succinctly:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Two types of information can leak on the internet: (1) information on devices,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  designs, processes, software designs, and many other industrial processes, and (2)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  information on individual employees’ life possessions-- employee- accumulated   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  knowledge and experience...When an employee is hired by a company he/she   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  usually signs a contract with a new employer against disclosure of information   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"acquired in the course of employment.† But by the nature of the internet an   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  employee can live by this contract and yet disclose as much information, most   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  times unknowingly, into the internet community. (147) Such information leaks can do great damage to individual companies in a competitive environment. Years of research and millions of dollars can be leaked out unwittingly. Infringement uses these trade secrets for gain. An infringer is anyone who uses proprietary information to profit undeservedly. But, unlike other lawbreakers no public law enforcement can be used to investigate an infringer (Kizza 78). The owner of patents or copyrights must pay any expenses incurred for investigating and prosecuting. Considering the inability to trace internet access in such a case few infringements are ever caught. This can be devastating to commerce (Kizza 78).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Concerning international relations the internet has already done much damage. The British Broadcasting Company, ran a program in 1995 explaining how before any real bombing began in the Gulf War, the US government used internet warfare to drop the â€Å"I- Bomb† on Saddam Hussein’s information systems (Bourdieu 57). The program intimated that the damage done in such warfare is more devastating than the physical damage done by the bombing.

Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard by Thomas Gray

Thomas Gray was the author behind Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, which has proven to be a timeless literary piece. Written and published in the 18th century, the said poem generally contemplates on death and morality. However, it does not speak of merely any kind of death. Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard mourns the loss of the common village folk, and the idea of loss discussed in the poem is that of the dreams and opportunities that have been lost and unfulfilled by the common villager because of death. An elegy is a poem that mourns or grieves the deceased (Napierkowski).From the title itself, it can be derived that the poem is about death. However, Thomas Gray wrote the poem in such a way that the question of morality is focused on a single subject: the common man (Napierkowski). Gray points out that unlike artists, poets, politicians and celebrities, the common man dies without recognition, praise or applause. The author also dwells on the possibility of having a co mmon man— who eventually dies— to actually gain similar recognition given to more famous or richer people, but were never able to do so because of the loss of their life (Napierkowski).The poem begins with the â€Å"parting day,† or the end of the day (Gray; Cummings). The author describes the disappearing landscape, which is that of the country churchyard, at dusk (Jung). Not until the third stanza within the poem is when reference to the dead is mentioned. It also states the underneath the trees are the graves of the â€Å"forefathers† (Gray). In the sixth stanza, Gray wrote, â€Å"Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield,/ Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke. † These two lines introduce the common people in the poem, and these folks are portrayed as workers of the land.Sickle is an instrument used in harvest; it is most distinguished for its blade which is shaped like a crescent (Cummings). Furrow refers to the indentation created by a plow for purposes of planting. The word â€Å"glebe† means â€Å"earth† (Cummings). In the seventh stanza, the speaker starts his defense of common men. Gray wrote, â€Å"Let not Ambition mock their useful toil,/Their homely joys, and destiny obscure. † This means that the hard work, simple desires and unrecognized efforts of common man must not be looked down upon.Gray continued, â€Å"Nor Grandeur hear with a disdainful smile/ The short and simple annals of the poor. † The â€Å"Grandeur† referred to in this line are the wealthy and powerful; the speaker states that these people have no right to be critical of the lives of the poor (Cummings). In the eighth stanza, the speaker simply affirms that regardless of status in life, all people will die (Cummings). Gray therefore concluded that â€Å"The paths of glory lead but to the grave† (Cummings). The idea of loss in the poem is first conveyed in the twelfth stanza. The speaker begins to c ontemplate about the chances lost to common men.Gray writes, â€Å"Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid/Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire. † The speaker considers the possibility that the deceased common people were filled with dreams or goals when they were still alive. The last two lines of the stanza is as follows: â€Å"Hands, that the rod of empire might have sway'd/ Or wak'd to ecstasy the living lyre† (Gray). The phrase â€Å"rod of empire† refers to the possibility of common man to become either an emperor or king; the last line's reference to the lyre implies the chance to be a musician (Cummings).The thirteenth stanza points out two factors that contributed to the unfulfilled dreams of common men: the lack of knowledge and poverty. In the first line, â€Å"But Knowledge to their eyes her ample page,† the speaker notes that the common men were not educated, which hindered their progress in life (Gray). The stanza's third line reads, â€Å"Chill Penury repress'd their noble rage† (Gray). â€Å"Penury† in this line means poverty; their poverty also prevented them from acting on their passions, and eliminating their ambitions in the process (Gray; Cummings).The fourteenth stanza contains the most identified lines in the entire poem (Cummings). It also expresses the intense despair the speaker felt about the lost opportunities for the common man. Full many a gem of purest ray serene The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear: Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air (Gray). The speaker compares common men with ocean gems that have yet to be uncovered (Cummings). The next analogy is regarding flowers whose beauty is dulled by the desert; just like the flowers, the passions and talents of common people were dulled by circumstance.In the fifteenth stanza, the speaker mentions significant figures whose footsteps the common men would have followed if only they were given the chance. Two of which were Hampden and Milton. John Hampden was considered as a hero; as he was brave enough to defy the authority of King Charles I (Cummings). Meanwhile, John Milton is a renowned poet. The speaker believed that the village could have produced similar personalities. The sixteenth to the eighteenth stanza expresses the advantages and disadvantages of the common people's way of life.Gray wrote, â€Å"Their lot forbad: nor circumscrib'd alone/ Their growing virtues, but their crimes confin'd. † On one hand, the lot of common village folk forbade them from getting recognition from their virtues or contributions to society (Cummings). One of their contributions was their efforts to provide food, as they are mostly farmers. This remains unnoticed. On the other hand, their lot also forbade them to commit â€Å"crimes† they would have done if they were rich and powerful. The line â€Å"Forbad to wade through slaughter to a throne† meant that their status in life also forbade them from resorting to violence to become king (Cummings).Their lot also hindered them to â€Å"shut the gates of mercy on mankind,† which meant to show mercy to those who need it (Gray; Cummings). By the nineteenth stanza, the speaker resumes in speaking about the life of the common village folk. According to Gray, â€Å"Their sober wishes never learn'd to stray. † This meant that the common people remained in that kind of simple lifestyle (Cummings). Also, â€Å"They kept the noiseless tenor of their way† (Gray). This meant that they maintained the simplicity of their life (Cummings).At death, the common villager will also have a â€Å"frail memorial† but â€Å"with uncouth rhymes and shapeless sculpture deck'd† (Gray). This means that the stone of the grave would only contain simple words, with no elaborate engravings or design. Despite this, it still â€Å"implores the passing tribute of a sigh† (Gray). However simple a gravestone is, it can still cause passersby to sigh (Cummings). The common village folk, unrecognized and destined to be forgotten can only depend on a friend to be remembered. As Gray wrote, â€Å"On some fond breast the parting soul relies.† However, even at death, the common man seeks to be remembered (Cummings). As in the last lines of the twenty-third stanza: â€Å"E'en from the tomb the voice of Nature cries/ E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires† (Gray). Indeed, the poem Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard by Thomas Gray elevated the status and standing of common village folk. They may not have experienced fame and fortune as others had, but they deserved the same privileges if only they were given the chance. The death of a person is a cause for despair, but there is greater despair in not achieving what could have been done.The loss spoken about in the poem is greater than death itself. Works Cited Cummings, Michael. Elegy Written in a C ountry Church-yard. 2003. 8 May 2008 . Gray, Thomas. Elegy Written in a Country Church-yard. 2007. 8 May 2008 . Jung, Sandro. â€Å"Elegy Written in a Country Church-yard. † The Literary Encyclopedia. 30 October 2002. 8 May 2008 . Napierkowski, Marie Rose, ed. Poetry for Students. Detroit: Gale, 199

Historical Development in the Field of Toxicology

Historical Development in the Field of Toxicology And Mechanisms and Factors Responsible for the Entrance of Toxicants in the Human body and their Harmful Effects Jorge D. Rebolledo Columbia Southern University Abstract The purpose of this paper is to make a short historical reference in the field of Toxicology and how this area of science has develop starting from centuries ago until our present. It is also the intention of this paper to explain how the toxics enter our body, how they are absorbed and the mechanisms responsible for that. Introduction As stated by E. Monosson, some define Toxicology as the study of toxic materials, including the clinical, industrial, economic, and legal problems associated with them. Although toxicology—as a formally recognized scientific discipline—is relatively new (with major developments in the mid-1900s), the science itself is thousands of years old. Consider the potential results of early trial and error experiences of hunter-gatherers for whom identifying a toxic plant or animal was a life or death situation. Some of the most poisonous substances known today are naturally produced chemicals including ricin from castor beans or tetrodotoxin from the puffer fish. Early humankinds’ careful observations of such plants or animals with toxic characteristics as frogs, containing curare, were put to use not only for avoidance of toxic substances but for weaponry as well. Many naturally-derived poisons were likely used for hunting, as medicinal (the Egyptians were aware of many such toxic substances as lead, opium and hemlock as early as 1500 BCE). Use extended eventually to political poisonings as practiced, for example, by the early Greeks and Romans. With time, poisons became widely used and with great sophistication. Notable poisoning victims include Socrates, Cleopatra, and Claudius. One of the more interesting stories resulting from a combination of both ancient history and current toxicological research, is the story of King Mithridates, king of Pontus (120-63 BC) who according to toxicology legend was so afraid that he might be a casualty of political poisoning, is said to have concocted a potion from a great number of herbs for his own consumption. It is believed he understood that by consuming small amounts of potential poisons, he might protect himself from any would-be poisoner. That is, he believed in the effectiveness of hormesis. Apparently, his plans worked so well that he gained a name for himself as one so mighty he could not be killed. Unfortunately, it is said that when circumstances were such that he desired to kill himself, he was unable to do so by ingesting poison and had to be run through by a sword instead. Whether or not the story is true, it has led current day scientists to speculate upon the ingredients of his potion. It is believed that some herbs that he may have used, for example, St. Johns Wort could truly have contributed to detoxification of some other poisons. Recent studies have demonstrated that St. Johns Wort (often used as an herbal remedy) can increase the metabolism or breakdown of certain drugs and chemicals. This early story of toxicology relates a very important concept—that all animals have some kind of intrinsic ability for detoxifying a number of naturally-occurring toxicants in small doses (so that, in some cases low doses of chemicals may pass through the body without causing harm. From this we derive the concept of a chemical threshold), and that these processes can be altered by exposure to other chemicals. The question remains as to how adept animals, including humans, are at detoxifying many of the newer industrial chemicals or mixtures of industrial or industrial and natural chemicals. Additionally, it is well known that in some cases, detoxification of chemicals can produce even more toxic compounds. Pre-Industrial Toxicology As declared by E. Monosson, as humans sought to better understand natural compounds that were both beneficial and harmful to them, there was very little if any clear understanding of the fundamental chemical nature of substances. That is, there was no connection between the ‘extract’ and ‘essence’ of a poisonous plant or animal and any one particular chemical that might cause toxicity. In fact, an awareness of chemistry in its modern form did not occur until around the mid to late 1600s. Paracelsus, a physician from the sixteenth century and one of the early â€Å"Fathers of Toxicology† believed that all matter was composed of three â€Å"primary bodies† (sulfur, salt, and mercury). Yet, Paracelsus also coined the now famous maxim of the newly emerging discipline of toxicology: â€Å"All substances are poisons, there is none which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison from a remedy. † (Paracelsus, 1493-1541) This phrase and Paracelsus’ name are committed to memory by hundreds of new toxicology students each year and has become the ‘motto’ of toxicology. Interestingly, if one takes Paracelsus at face value, it appears that in this quote he was referring to substances which served as potential remedies but could be poisonous if taken in high enough concentrations. Most of us are aware of the fact that overdosing can turn remedies to poisons, even with such apparently innocuous drugs as aspirin and Tylenol. Another branch on the toxicology family tree that developed in the sixteenth century, along with the study of drugs and the use of chemicals in hunting and warfare, was occupational toxicology. As humans learned how to remove and exploit such materials as coal, and metals and other minerals, occupational exposures to these chemical substances (and chemicals produced incidentally) resulted. Scientists eventually recognized the linkages among illnesses and exposures to these compounds. Some of the first reports of occupational illness, or diseases caused by activities related to specific occupations, can be found in literature from the mid- to late-1500s. Early occupational observations include the ill effects from lead mining and madness caused by mercury exposure (for example, the saying â€Å"mad as a hatter† was attributed to the common use of mercury in the hat felting process). Later, in the 1700s, Bernardino Ramazzini is credited with bringing to light diseases of tradesmen, including silicosis in stone workers and lead poisoning. In the late 1700s, Sir Percival Potts made one of the more famous observations in toxicology, linking an occupational exposure (in this case soot in chimney sweeps) to cancer of the scrotum. At this point we have discussed the pre-Industrial Revolution developments in toxicology, that were primarily devoted to the study of such naturally-occurring toxicants as the polyaromatic compounds contained in soot and heavy metals, and such toxins as botulinum toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Toxicology and the Chemical and Industrial Revolution The chemical/Industrial Revolution of the mid-19th century released many naturally-occurring chemicals into the environment in unprecedented amounts. Also, it produced and released new substances unlike any that had existed in the natural world. With the production and use of these chemicals, and the need to protect humans from the toxic effects of industrial chemicals, toxicology eventually evolved to include its modern day branches: pharmacology, pesticide toxicology, general toxicology, and occupational toxicology. Towards the mid-late 20th century, environmental toxicology was developed to specifically address the effects on both humans and wildlife of chemicals released into the environment. A notable difference among the branches of toxicology is that pharmacology, pesticides and even occupational toxicology primarily have focused on the effects of relatively high concentrations of single chemicals. This compares to the relatively low concentrations of several different chemicals or chemical mixtures that are relevant to environmental toxicology. The chemicals considered by the earlier branches of toxicology were, and are, a known quantity. That is, the research was designed to address questions about specific, well-characterized chemicals, exposure conditions, and even concentration ranges rather than complex chemical mixtures. For example, pharmacologists might work with a particular active ingredient (e. g. , salicylic acid or aspirin), and be confident about the route of exposure (oral) and the concentration or dose. This is seldom the case in environmental toxicology, and hazardous waste assessment and cleanup in particular, where chemicals often are present in mixtures, routes of exposure may vary (for example, from oral to dermal to inhalation). Significantly, exposure concentrations prove difficult to determine. Mechanisms and Factors Responsible for the Entrance of Toxicants in the Human body and their Harmful Effects Absorption of toxicants Absorption is the process whereby toxicants gain entrance to the body. Ingested and inhaled materials, nonetheless, are considered outside the body until they cross the cellular barriers of the gastrointestinal tract or the respiratory system. To exert an effect on internal organs a toxicant must be absorbed, although such local toxicity as irritation, may occur. Absorption varies greatly with specific chemicals and with the route of exposure. For skin, oral or respiratory exposure, the exposure dose (or, â€Å"outside† dose) is usually only a fraction of the absorbed dose (that is, the internal dose). For substances injected or implanted directly into the body, exposure dose is the same as the absorbed or internal dose. Several factors affect the likelihood that a foreign chemical or, xenobiotic, will be absorbed. According to E. Monosson, the most important are: †¢ Route of exposure Concentration of the substance at the site of contact †¢ Chemical and physical properties of the substance The relative roles of concentration and properties of the substance vary with the route of exposure. In some cases, a high percentage of a substance may not be absorbed from one route whereas a low amount may be absorbed via another route. For example, very little DDT powder will penetrate the skin whereas a high percentage will be absorbed when it is swallowed. Due to such route-specific differences in absorption, xenobiotics are often ranked for hazard in accordance with the route of exposure. A substance may be categorized as relatively non-toxic by one route and highly toxic via another route. The primary routes of exposure by which xenobiotics can gain entry into the body are: †¢ Gastrointestinal tract: Key in environmental exposure to food and water contaminants and is the most important route for many pharmaceuticals. †¢ Respiratory tract: Key in environmental and occupational exposure to aerial toxicants and some drugs that use this route (i. e. : inhalers). †¢ Skin: Also an environmental and occupational exposure route. A lot of medicines are applied to the skin directly. Other routes of exposure—used primarily for specific medical purposes—are: †¢ Injections (IV, Subcutaneous, Intradermal, Intrathecal) basically used for medications. †¢ Implants (Hormone patches) †¢ Conjunctival instillations (Eye drops) †¢ Suppositories For a toxic to enter the body (as well as move within, and leave the body) it must pass across cell membranes (cell walls). Cell membranes are formidable barriers and major body defenses that prevent foreign invaders or substances from gaining entry into body tissues. Normally, cells in solid tissues (for example, skin or mucous membranes of the lung or intestine) are so tightly compacted that substances cannot pass between them. Entry, therefore, requires that the xenobiotic have some capability to penetrate cell membranes. Also, the substance must cross several membranes in order to go from one area of the body to another. In essence, for a substance to move through one cell requires that it first move across the cell membrane into the cell, pass across the cell, and then cross the cell membrane again in order to leave the cell. This is true whether the cells are in the skin, the lining of a blood vessel, or an internal organ (for example, the liver). In many cases, in order for a substance to reach its site of toxic action, it must pass through several membrane barriers. Cell membranes surround all body cells and are basically similar in structure. They consist of two layers of phospholipid molecules arranged like a â€Å"sandwich† and also known as â€Å"phospholipid bilayer†. Each phospholipid molecule consists of a phosphate head and a lipid tail. The phosphate head is polar so it is hydrophilic (attracted to water). In contrast, the lipid tail is lipophilic (attracted to lipid-soluble substances). The two phospholipid layers are oriented on opposing sides of the membrane so that they are approximate mirror images of each other. The polar heads face outward and the lipid tails inward. The cell membrane is tightly packed with these phospholipid molecules—interspersed with various proteins and cholesterol molecules. Some proteins span across the entire membrane providing for the formation of aqueous channels or pores. Some toxicants move across a membrane barrier with relative ease while others find it difficult or impossible. Those that can cross the membrane, do so by one of two general methods: either passive transfer or facilitated transport. Passive transfer consists of simple diffusion (or osmotic filtration) and is â€Å"passive† in that there is no requirement for cellular energy or assistance. Some toxicants cannot simply diffuse across the membrane. They require assistance that is facilitated by specialized transport mechanisms. The primary types of specialized transport mechanisms are: †¢ Facilitated diffusion †¢ Active transport †¢ Endocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis). Passive transfer is the most common way that xenobiotics cross cell membranes. Two factors determine the rate of passive transfer: †¢ Differences in concentrations of the substance on opposite sides of the membrane (substance moves from a region of high concentration to one having a lower concentration. Diffusion will continue until the concentration is equal on both sides of the membrane); and †¢ Ability of the substance to move either through the small pores in the membrane or through the lipophilic interior of the membrane. Properties of the chemical substance that affect its ability for passive transfer are: †¢ Lipid solubility Molecular size †¢ Degree of ionization (that is, the electrical charge of an atom) Substances with high lipid solubility readily diffuse through the phospholipid membrane. Small water-soluble molecules can pass across a membrane through the aqueous pores, along with normal intracellular water flow. Large water-soluble molecules usually cannot make it through the small pores, although some may diffuse through the l ipid portion of the membrane, but at a slow rate. In general, highly ionized chemicals have low lipid solubility and pass with difficulty through the lipid membrane. Most aqueous pores are about 4 angstrom (A) in size and allow chemicals of molecular weight 100-200 to pass through. Exceptions are membranes of capillaries and kidney glomeruli that have relatively large pores (about 40A) that allow molecules up to a molecular weight of about 50,000 (molecules slightly smaller than albumen which has a molecular weight of 60,000) to pass through. Facilitated diffusion is similar to simple diffusion in that it does not require energy and follows a concentration gradient. The difference is that it is a carrier-mediated transport mechanism. The results are similar to passive transport but faster and capable of moving larger molecules that have difficulty diffusing through the membrane without a carrier. Examples are the transport of sugar and amino acids into red blood cells (RBCs), and into the central nervous system (CNS). Some substances are unable to move with diffusion, unable to dissolve in the lipid layer, and are too large to pass through the aqueous channels. For some of these substances, active transport processes exist in which movement through the membrane may be against the concentration gradient: they move from low to higher concentrations. Cellular energy from adenosine triphosphate (ADP) is required in order to accomplish this. The transported substance can move from one side of the membrane to the other side by this energy process. Active transport is important in the transport of xenobiotics into the liver, kidney, and central nervous system and for maintenance of electrolyte and nutrient balance. Many large molecules and particles cannot enter cells via passive or active mechanisms. However, some may enter, by a process known as endocytosis. In endocytosis, the cell surrounds the substance with a section of its cell wall. This engulfed substance and section of membrane then separates from the membrane and moves into the interior of the cell. The two main forms of endocytosis are phagocytosis and pinocytosis. In phagocytosis (cell eating), large particles suspended in the extracellular fluid are engulfed and either transported into cells or are destroyed within the cell. This is a very important process for lung phagocytes and certain liver and spleen cells. Pinocytosis (cell drinking) is a similar process but involves the engulfing of liquids or very small particles that are in suspension within the extracellular fluid. Gastrointestinal Tract The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, the major portion of the alimentary canal) can be viewed as a tube going through the body. Its contents are considered exterior to the body until absorbed. Salivary glands, the liver, and the pancreas are considered accessory glands of the GI tract as they have ducts entering the GI tract and secrete enzymes and other substances. For foreign substances to enter the body, they must pass through the gastrointestinal mucosa, crossing several membranes before entering the blood stream. Substances must be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract in order to exert a systemic toxic effect, although local gastrointestinal damage may occur. Absorption can occur at any place along the entire gastrointestinal tract. However, the degree of absorption is strongly site dependent. Three main factors affect absorption within the various sites of the gastrointestinal tract: †¢ Type of cells at the specific site †¢ Period of time that the substance remains at the site †¢ pH of stomach or intestinal contents at the site. Under normal conditions, xenobiotics are poorly absorbed within the mouth and esophagus, due mainly to the very short time that a substance resides within these portions of the gastrointestinal tract. There are some notable exceptions. For example, nicotine readily penetrates the mouth mucosa. Also, nitroglycerin is placed under the tongue (sublingual) for immediate absorption and treatment of heart conditions. The sublingual mucosa under the tongue and in some other areas of the mouth is thin and highly vascularized so that some substances will be rapidly absorbed. The stomach, having high acidity (pH 1-3), is a significant site for absorption of weak organic acids, which exist in a diffusible, nonionized and lipid-soluble form. In contrast, weak bases will be highly ionized and therefore are absorbed poorly. Chemically, the acidic stomach may break down some substances. For this reason those substances must be administered in gelatin capsules or coated tablets, that can pass through the acidic stomach into the intestine before they dissolve and release their contents. Another determinant that affects the amount of a substance that will be absorbed in the stomach is the presence of food. Food ingested at the same time as the xenobiotic may result in a considerable difference in absorption of the xenobiotic. For example, the LD50 for Dimethline (a respiratory stimulant) in rats is 30 mg/kg (or 30 parts per million) when ingested along with food, but only 12 mg/kg when it is administered to fasting rats. The greatest absorption of chemicals, as with nutrients, takes place in the intestine, particularly in the small intestine (see Figure 9). The intestine has a large surface area consisting of outward projections of the thin (one-cell thick) mucosa into the lumen of the intestine (the villi). This large surface area facilitates diffusion of substances across the cell membranes of the intestinal mucosa. Since the intestinal pH is near neutral (pH 5-8), both weak bases and weak acids are nonionized and are usually readily absorbed by passive diffusion. Lipid soluble, small molecules effectively enter the body from the intestine by passive diffusion. In addition to passive diffusion, facilitated and active transport mechanisms exist to move certain substances across the intestinal cells into the body, including such essential nutrients as glucose, amino acids and calcium. Also, strong acids, strong bases, large molecules, and metals (and some important toxins) are transported by these mechanisms. For example, lead, thallium, and paraquat (herbicide) are toxicants that are transported across the intestinal wall by active transport systems. The high degree of absorption of ingested xenobiotics is also due to the slow movement of substances through the intestinal tract. This slow passage increases the length of time that a compound is available for absorption at the intestinal membrane barrier. Intestinal microflora and gastrointestinal enzymes can affect the toxicity of ingested substances. Some ingested substances may be only poorly absorbed but they may be biotransformed within the gastrointestinal tract. In some cases, their biotransformed products may be absorbed and be more toxic than the ingested substance. An important example is the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines from non-carcinogenic amines by intestinal flora. Very little absorption takes place in the colon and rectum. As a general rule, if a xenobiotic has not been absorbed after passing through the stomach or small intestine, very little further absorption will occur. However, there are some exceptions, as some medicines may be administered as rectal suppositories with significant absorption. An example, is Anusol (hydrocortisone preparation) used for treatment of local inflammation which is partially absorbed (about 25%). Respiratory Tract Many environmental and occupational agents as well as some pharmaceuticals are inhaled and enter the respiratory tract. Absorption can occur at any place within the upper respiratory tract. However, the amount of a particular xenobiotic that can be absorbed at a specific location is highly dependent upon its physical form and solubility. There are three basic regions to the respiratory tract: †¢ Nasopharyngeal region †¢ Tracheobronchial region †¢ Pulmonary region By far the most important site for absorption is the pulmonary region consisting of the very small airways (bronchioles) and the alveolar sacs of the lung. The alveolar region has a very large surface area (about 50 times that of the skin). In addition, the alveoli consist of only a single layer of cells with very thin membranes that separate the inhaled air from the blood stream. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases pass readily through this membrane. In contrast to absorption via the gastrointestinal tract or through the skin, gases and particles, which are water-soluble (and thus blood soluble), will be absorbed more efficiently from the lung alveoli. Water-soluble gases and liquid aerosols can pass through the alveolar cell membrane by simple passive diffusion. In addition to solubility, the ability to be absorbed is highly dependent on the physical form of the agent (that is, whether the agent is a gas/vapor or a particle). The physical form determines penetration into the deep lung. A gas or vapor can be inhaled deep into the lung and if it has high solubility in the blood, it is almost completely absorbed in one respiration. Absorption through the alveolar membrane is by passive diffusion, following the concentration gradient. As the agent dissolves in the circulating blood, it is taken away so that the amount that is absorbed and enters the body may be quite large. The only way to increase the amount absorbed is to increase the rate and depth of breathing. This is known as ventilation-limitation. For blood-soluble gases, equilibrium between the concentration of the agent in the inhaled air and that in the blood is difficult to achieve. Inhaled gases or vapors, which have poor solubility in the blood, have quite limited capacity for absorption. The reason for this is that the blood can become quickly saturated. Once saturated, blood will not be able to accept the gas and it will remain in the inhaled air and then exhaled. The only way to increase absorption would be to increase the rate of blood supply to the lung. This is known as flow-limitation. Equilibrium between blood and the air is reached more quickly for relatively insoluble gases than for soluble gases. The absorption of airborne particles is usually quite different from that of gases or vapors. The absorption of solid particles, regardless of solubility, is dependent upon particle size. Large particles (>5  µM) are generally deposited in the nasopharyngeal region ((head airways region) with little absorption. Particles 2-5  µM can penetrate into the tracheobronchial region. Very small particles (

Tragic Hero Essays

Tragic Hero Essays Tragic Hero Paper Tragic Hero Paper In every Sophoclean drama, there is a hero of some kind.These heroes usually are the focus of the myth.Some examples would be Frodo from the Lord of the Rings, Jason and the Argonauts in the Quest for the Golden Fleece, etc.Characters such as Creon and Antigone of the myth Antigone are also great examples.All of these characters have the qualities of a tragic hero, according to Aristotle.These qualities would be that they are inherently good, have good intentions, recognize responsibility, and accept their fate with dignity.Unfortunately, every hero has a tragic flaw. Creon and Antigone embody characteristics of the traditional Greek tragic hero and the Sophoclean tragic hero, respectively. The traditional Greek tragic hero is defined by five characteristics, thefirst being Aret. Aret is having excellence.Hubris is defines a hero as having excessive pride.At is blind recklessness that heroes may follow because they do not think about what is going to happen next.Nemesis is disastrous retribution.The tragic flaw that a traditional Greek hero harbors is their excessive pride.This is shown when Creon says, But whoever steps out of line, violates the laws or presumes to hand out orders to his superiors, hell win no praise from me. (AI L746-750)They will not accept defeat and this is bad.Creon of the myth Antigone is a traditional Greek tragic hero.He is also the antagonist in the story. The Sophoclean tragic hero is a character whose rigid and courageous adherence to a set of principles invites their disastrous fate.Their flaw is their rigidity.Antigone is a Sophoclean tragic hero in the self-entitled myth.She would not leave a family member unburied, which in turn breaks her fathers law and proves to bring her doom. Tragic hero Essays Tragic hero Essay Tragic hero Essay The Crucible as a drama effectively explores and treats the problems of envy and jealousy. These two problems are personified by the character Abigail. Abigail is vehemently jealous of Elizabeth Proctor and of course, her relationship with John Proctor, and in Act One drinks a charm to kill her. As this initial ceremony is what sparks the witch-hunts in Salem, it can be inferred that the jealousy evident in the play is the cause for all of the other problems that arise with the witch-hunts. This jealousy throughout the play causes hysteria and panic Elizabeth, knowing that Abigail wants [her] dead fears that she will be suspected in the witch hunts because of Abigails jealousies. This is indeed what occurs, Abigail utilising the agency that she gains during the trials to her advantage. However, the background of Abigails character must be explored in order to completely understand this jealousy and will for attention and love. Abigails parents were brutally murdered, and she was left as an orphan under Parris strict household. The nature of her jealousy, therefore is centres a will for affection and love. This problematises Abigails upbringing, thereby failed parents are revealed and problematised. The audiences response to Abigail identified with the tone of the play and with the manner in which envy is treated in the play with sympathy, but condemned. Other characters however, are not viewed as sympathetically. The Putnams also represent envy and resentment. Ann Putnam is resentful of Rebecca Nurse and her healthy family and this leads to Rebecca Nurses imprisonment and hanging. Thomas Putman represents envy in his constant struggle to gain more land. In this case, however, the audience condemns them. As members of the upper-middle class they do not attract sympathy for their actions. The problems of envy, jealousy and resentment, are condemned in Millers The Crucible and although partially justified in the case of Abigail, are deemed unacceptable by the audience. In Millers drama The Crucible, the need to maintain a good reputation and personal integrity is explored and problematised, revealing the superficial nature of the contemporaneous society and any applied society. John Proctor, who in Act 4 decides to hang rather than have his name be blackened typifies this trait. For this, he is immediately perceived as a character of high morals and the tragic hero of the play. However, the motives behind this high morality are exposed too. John Proctor, when deciding he will hang reveals his obsession with his good name. Although John Proctor is happy to sign the confession, he will not let it hang on the church door and this brings him to tear up what he has signed. This action represents superficiality and is problematised. The nature of the public eye, particularly the gossiping nature of Puritanism represented undermines the judicial system and ridicules it. In this, the society of Salem is condemned by the audience for its theocracy and that prive and public morality are one. The character John Proctor, although viewed as essentially good and condoned by the audience has motives to appear perfect in the public eye, an obsession that is problematised, and ultimately results in his death. Giles Corey, another character essentially viewed as good also refuses to give into the pressure of society and indeed the pressure of the stones that pressed him and clung to his personal integrity when refusing to name those whod signed an affidavit as to the good nature of Elizabeth Proctor, Martha Corey and Rebecca Nurse. This personal pride borders on the edge of stubbornness and for this reason is problematised. The result of this pressing is the Corey dies, which although tragic, allows the audience to understand that he did die in vain, and with regards to the symbolic nature of the text understand that Giles Corey gave in to societal pressure like John Proctor, resulting in his downfall. Although the values of a reputation and the importance of personal integrity are maintained throughout the drama, obsession with these traits is problematised, resulting in death and destruction. A significant moral problem that is raised in the drama The Crucible is moral uncertainty, and it is explored and treated as the drama progresses. The original John Hale spoke of a conscientious endeavour to do the thing that was right. This is true of the nature of the Coreys, the Proctors and the Nurses in the play, and to an extent the judges who believe it is G-ds work [they] do. Yet these characters have difficulty in determining what exactly is right and what exactly is moral. Repetition is utilised in order to illustrate this problem. The repetition of the phrase I think indicates this uncertainty. In Act Two, for example, Elizabeth says in succession The towns gone wild, I think, I think you must go to Salem, John. I think so, and when referring to the court I think they must be told. To this, Proctor answers Ill think on it and I think its not easy to prove shes fraud. All of this suggest an uncertainty, not only to the whole situation of the witch-hunts in Salem but to societys inability to make correct judgements, and the uncertainty that society displays about what is right and wrong and what each individuals position is. This insecurity and inability to make clear concise decisions and the moral uncertainty of these decisions escalates the conflict within the drama, revealing dilemma and thus making the drama more effective. Unconsciously these characters ignore what they feel is right, and instead depend on the views of the persuasive society to do what they think is right. For example, Judge Danforth refuses to believe that the girls might be frauds and he has been making the wrong judgements throughout the play and sentencing innocents to death. The problem of moral uncertainty represented throughout the play through repetition, characterisation and conflict allows the audience to condemn this uncertainty. The audience is also able to view the destruction of characters and society itself within the play as a result of this lack of moral conviction and integrity. The Crucible, by Arthur Miller is an effective medium in which a variety of social and moral problems are raised. These problematised issues are typically treated in two ways. Firstly, in the case of problems raised such as gender and class inequalities, traditional roles are often maintained, but varied slightly in order to create confusion and complications. These complications allow these problems to be raised and condemned. Other problems, such as envy, jealousy and bigotry are vehemently attacked by Miller, allowing the audience to immediately view these issues and others as problematic. While some problems and issues raised are justified for example, Abigails desire for affection relates to her traumatic childhood all in all, the main problems raised in The Crucible are rejected. This is achieved by the use of a variety of dramatic techniques and conventions throughout the drama, allowing the audience to gain insight into the problems evident not only in the Puritan society of Salem, Massachusetts in 1492, but to other contexts be it Millers McCarthyist context, the Nazi Germany period, contemporary society or to any general context where human behaviour and conflict is evident.

The American Leisure Class Essay Example

The American Leisure Class Essay Example The American Leisure Class Essay The American Leisure Class Essay Thorstein Veblen During the earlier stages of economic development, consumption of goods without stint, especially consumption of the better grades of goods – ideally all consumption in excess of the subsistence minimum – pertains normally to the leisure class. This restriction tends to disappear, at least formally, after the later peaceable stage has been reached with private ownership of goods and an industrial system based on wage labour or on the petty household economy. The quasi-peaceable gentleman of leisure †¦ consumes freely and of the best, in food, drink, narcotics, shelter, services, ornaments, apparel, weapons and accoutrements, amusements, amulets, and idols or divinities. This growth of punctilious discrimination as to qualitative excellence in eating, drinking, etc. , presently affects not only the manner of life, but also the training and intellectual activity of the gentleman of leisure. He is no longer simply the successful, aggressive male – the man of strength, resource, and intrepidity. In order to avoid stultification he must also cultivate his tastes, for it now becomes incumbent on him to discriminate with some nicety between the noble and the ignoble in consumable goods. He becomes a connoisseur in creditable viands of various degrees of merit, in manly beverages and trinkets, in seemly apparel and architecture, in weapons, games, dances and the narcotics. This cultivation of the aesthetic faculty requires time and application, and the demands made upon the gentleman in this direction therefore tend to change his life of leisure into a more or less arduous application to the business of learning how to live a life of ostensible leisure in a becoming way. Closely related to the requirement that the gentleman must consume freely and of the right kind of goods, there is the requirement that he must know how to consume them in a seemly manner. His life of leisure must be conducted in due form. Hence arise good manners. High-bred manners and ways of living are items of conformity to the norm of conspicuous leisure and conspicuous consumption. This blending and confusion of the elements of expensiveness and of beauty is, perhaps, best exemplified in articles of dress and of household furniture. The code of reputability in matters of dress decides what shapes, colours, materials and general effects in human apparel are for the time to be acce pted as suitable: and departures from the code are offensive to our taste, supposedly as being departures from aesthetic truth. The approval with which we look upon fashionable attire is by no means to be accounted pure make-believe. We readily, and for the most part with utter sincerity, find those things pleasing that are in vogue. Shaggy dress-stuffs and pronounced colour effects, for instance, offend us at times when the vogue is goods of a high, glossy finish and neutral colours. A fancy bonnet of this year’s model unquestionably appeals to our sensibilities today much more forcibly than an equally fancy bonnet of the model of least year: although when viewed in the perspective of a quarter of a century, it would, I apprehend, be a matter of the utmost difficulty to award the palm for intrinsic beauty to the one rather that to the other of these structures. †¦. It has in the course of economic development become the office of the woman to consume vicariously for the head of the household; and her apparel is contrived with this object in view. It has come about that obviously productive labour is in a peculiar degree derogatory to respectable women, and therefore special pains should be taken in the construction of women’s dress to impress upon the beholder the fact (often indeed a fiction) that the wearer does not and can not habitually engage in useful work. Propriety requires respectable women to abstain more consistently from useful effort and to make more of a show of leisure than the men of the same social classes. It grates painfully on our nerves to contemplate the necessity of any well-bred woman’s earning a livelihood by useful work. It is not ‘women’s sphere’. Her sphere is within the household, which she should ‘beautify’, and of which she should be the ‘chief ornament’. The male head of the household is not currently spoken of as its ornament. This feature taken in conjunction with the other fact that propriety requires more unremitting attention to expensive display in the dress and other paraphernalia of women, goes to enforce the view already implied in what has gone before. By virtue of its descent from a patriarchal past, our social system makes it the woman’s function in an especial degree to put in evidence her household’s ability to pay. According to the modern civilized scheme of life, the good name of the household to which she belongs should be the special care of the woman; and the system of honorific expenditure and conspicuous leisure by which this good name is chiefly sustained is therefore the woman’s sphere †¦ Source: Veblen, T. (1953) the Theory of the Leisure Class. New York. Mentor. pp. 64-5, 97 and 126. First published by Macmillan in 1899 and 1912.